Since humans harnessed fire to
extend their day beyond sundown,
Stories have been shared –
to explain the world,
to calm our fears,
to preserve ancient wisdom
& to prepare us for the future.
Adolescence: A Window of Opportunity
Adolescence spans the ages from 10 to 19 and is a period of physical, cognitive and psychosocial growth marking the transition from childhood to adulthood. During adolescence peer relationships and large social groups replace adult guidance, influencing self-evaluation as teens seek their personal identity. Social skills including Theory of Mind (ToM) – imagining the world from another’s perspective – emerge in early childhood and continue to develop during adolescence alongside enhanced sensitivity to social signals, motivating behavioural choices; this is a time when teens, viewing themselves from others’ perspectives, choose to abandon performing arts and sports activities. The behavioural and emotional patterns associated with establishing personal identity can result in maladaptive responses and negative spirals during adolescence that can have lifelong effects.
The incidence of mental illness emerging during adolescence appears to be increasing in Australia and abroad. In Australia, 25% of mental illness originates during adolescence with greater numbers of teens reporting concerns about the environment, problems at school or stress, anxiety, depression and self-esteem compared to earlier surveys; in UK 16 year olds as a group record the lowest self-reported scores amongst children on life satisfaction, self-belief, and coping skills; and in USA 76% of teens regard anxiety and depression as major concern for themselves or their friends. Mental illness during adolescence can cause significant and ongoing disruption to young people’s educational outcomes. However, adolescents must view interventions as being meaningful if they are to be effective in assisting them to improve, maintain and take responsibility for their personal wellbeing.
Adolescence is considered to be a “Window of Opportunity” both for brain development, and for personal and social development. Reframing adolescence in this way suggests this period of brain plasticity and sensitivity development is also an opportunity to facilitate positive and healthy behavioural and socio-emotional changes. Adolescents are motivated to learn by material that is relevant to learning about themselves and their role in society, and learning how to navigate social relationships. Stories which engage adolescents can provide a variety of social experiences; firstly as they engage with characters within the story, secondly as they discuss elements of the story with other readers, and finally as they develop their capacity to identify and name themselves in the context of the world.
Self-actualisation &
Developmental Bibliotherapy
Self-actualisation – the realisation of ones’ full potential, harmonising one’s actual-self with one’s ideal-self and one’s ought-self – is at the peak of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, and is considered to be one of the most important of society’s goals, encompassing feelings of gratification, safety, belonging, and self-respect. Wellbeing, learning, and creativity are important contributors to self-actualisation, but similarly, self-actualisation is important for wellbeing, learning, and creativity. An education that encourages self-respect, self-efficacy, courage, and resilience is one which also supports the development of self-actualization in children.
Developmental Bibliotherapy was described by Rhea Rubin in 1979 as encompassing voluntary programs for children in classroom settings, usually designed and conducted by teachers and librarians, using imaginary and didactic literature in discussions which encourage reflection and insight with the aim of promoting self-actualisation and healthy development. Developmental Bibliotherapy using Young Adult (YA) fiction can help young people develop a capacity to better manage their own wellbeing by encouraging self-reflection, strengthening core confidence, promoting a growth mindset, and developing feelings of compassion, empathy, tolerance and gratitude. YA fiction which takes the reader on journeys alongside authentic, relatable, and fallible heroes, provides the lesson that even heroes make mistakes. Fiction can provide readers with opportunities to explore alternative attitudes and behaviours – alongside protagonists – in preparation for the problems that they may encounter at some stage of their lives. Developmental Bibliotherapy, which harnesses the adaptive and beneficial effects of storytelling, empowers adolescents to maintain their own wellbeing and to further self-actualisation.
Students need School Libraries
Research indicates that the presence of a caring adult who is available for authentic and meaningful conversation can make a significant difference in adolescent achievement; for some this will be a school librarian. Teacher Librarians (TLs) – so named in Australian schools to reflect their dual Teacher and Librarian qualifications – have a unique role within school communities in supporting student wellbeing. Australian TLs are respected, valued and seen as supportive by their students. The school library space is regarded by students as a welcoming and accessible space in which they have a degree of autonomy over their activities, free of academic and time pressures; a place they might visit for relaxation, for learning and exploring, or to have a chat. School libraries are recognised and valued as safe spaces as there is generally a clear code of conduct which is modelled and enforced because they are spaces where a staff member is always present. TL led reading programs are usually aimed at promoting reading for pleasure, and yet can be simultaneously guided by the themes in the curriculum and tailored to individual needs. However, while many adolescents value reading fiction as a pleasurable activity, in educational settings reading for pleasure is not often recognised as a valuable pursuit.
Therefore, while Developmental Bibliotherapy can be conducted in classrooms with generalist teachers, the participation of the TL is the key to the success of these programs in 21st century Australian schools because students perceive TLs as being more likely to know students’ reading abilities; more aware of group and individual interests; more able to generate student centred discussion about books; more knowledgeable about books written for young adults; and more likely to model reading as a pleasurable activity and to express their enjoyment in reading compared to teachers of English who students perceive as being focused on curriculum and student achievement. TLs are valued by Australian students not only as the overseer of the school library as a place of sanctuary and a personal guide toward reading choices, but also for their pastoral role in enhancing student wellbeing.
Yet Australian school libraries are being defunded, many school librarians do not have teacher qualifications, and secondary school reading programs are often undervalued, do not have timetabled allocations, or are non-existent. Research advocating for the benefits of school library programs delivered by qualified Teacher Librarians appears to be confined to the social sciences in research which is based on subjective, intuitive, anecdotal and qualitative outcomes.
In contrast, the Integrated Literature Review (ILR) provides evidence for the outcomes stated below, derived from analysis and synthesis of quantitative studies from the field of Cognitive Neuroscience. These outcomes provide empirical evidence in support of myriad existing qualitative studies and indicate the potential for Developmental Bibliotherapy programs designed and delivered by TLs to enhance learning environments and thus improve student outcomes.
Implications for Education
In summary, findings from the ILR taken together strongly suggest that Developmental Bibliotherapy programs led by TLs and which encourage reading for pleasure have the potential to:
- build hope, efficacy, resilience and optimism and therefore core confidence, flexible intelligence and a growth mindset;
- broaden the range of emotional experiences by facilitating vicarious learning by the actions of mirror neurons to promote mutual understanding;
- reveal diverse perspectives and thus promote empathy, compassion, tolerance, and ToM;
- increase classroom cohesion and communication and so creating safer learning environments leading to better educational outcomes;
- demonstrate how diversity can produce different leadership and problem solving styles that might enhance productivity, creativity, divergent thinking and curiosity;
- introduce language to enable self-expression, and soften barriers to communication;
- validate emotions and reduce feelings of isolation, remove stigmas and stereotypes, and introduce language and concepts associated with mental illness to increase opportunities for early intervention;
- promote effective communication, discussion and consensus building;
- encourage reading for pleasure.
Conclusion
The importance that Australian students place on Teacher Librarians and school library spaces, and the potential for secondary school library programs to enhance wellbeing and educational outcomes are supported by abundant qualitative, anecdotal and intuitive evidence. However, books, libraries and qualified Teacher Librarians are disappearing from schools in Australia and around the world, while the incidence of mental illness in adolescents and young adults is increasing. Meanwhile, although studies using narratives as naturalistic stimuli in neuroscience are slowly but unremittingly providing a rich array of robust, objective, quantitative evidence of the mechanisms of DMN under the influence of stories, the origin and focus of these studies currently remain confined within the field of cognitive neuroscience. As noted by Jonathan Gottschall in 2013, “Researchers are not in the habit of pursuing scientific responses to literary questions”.
By examining the actions of narratives in neuroscience through an educational lens, this ILR has combined findings from diverse examples of quantitative research into an ecologically valid empirical based support for the significance of narratives in nurturing self-actualisation and adaptive behaviours that benefit educational outcomes such as creativity, insight, reward, and pleasure; relationships that, hitherto, have been difficult to prove. It is hoped that by a bridging a knowledge gap between cognitive neuroscience and existing educational research, this ILR will introducing policy makers to the importance of reading for pleasure.
This ILR has also demonstrated that viewing narratives from the perspective of DMN reveals empirical evidence to suggest a central role of narratives as catalyst for the evolution of the human DMN, characterised as an evolutionary triptych comprising the Concept Building Brain, the Storytelling Brain and the Social Brain, working together to enable Homo sapiens to overcome great challenges in the past to ensure not just the survival, but the success of the species, and just as critical to ensure the ongoing survival of the species into the future.
Read For Life 